Beleid en debat

Pesticides have major indirect effects on birds

Pesticides have major indirect effects on birds via the killing of both invertebrates important for food and also agricultural weeds which provide seed resources and also cover for invertebrates. Several pieces of evidence support the negative relationship between insecticide spraying and vital rates of farmland bird populations. Probably the best example comes from a fully replicated study of the grey partridge (Perdix perdix L.). This study showed that pesticide spraying affected the invertebrate food of partridge chicks, which was correlated with chick survival, and was the main cause of population decline. More recent examples come from another farmland bird specialist, the yellowhammer (Emberiza citrinella). A study showed that arable fields sprayed during the summer were used less frequently than fields not sprayed during the summer by adult yellowhammers foraging for food for their young. The availability of arthropods was depressed up to 20 days after an insecticide spraying event and this negatively affected yellowhammer chick survival. Both herbicide spraying and fungicide spraying have also been shown to be negatively correlated with invertebrate populations and weed populations and so these are also likely to negatively affect farmland bird populations.

Bat populations are rapidly declining in North America

Bats are an amazingly diverse group of flying mammals that can be found in virtually every corner of the world. Most bats are harmless insect-eaters. Bat populations are declining worldwide, mostly because of habitat destruction and overuse of pesticides. One woman in the Washington area, who is working to improve public understanding of bats, is doing what she can to help them survive. As sunlight fades from the evening sky, Leslie Sturges checks on a colony of bats she has been monitoring. She's concerned that her count reveals only half the number of bats as last year. Sturges is director of a conservation group called Bat World NOVA. Sturges also teaches the importance of bats at nature centers and in schools. Her goal is to promote their protection and conservation by stressing the positive things bats contribute to the environment. “One of the things they contribute, well around here in North America, is pest control for plant-eating insects," said Sturges. "So anyone who grows anything is getting an assist from bats.”

Decline of malaria mosquito vectors in sub-Saharan Africa since 1998 despite the absence of organized vector control

In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum has historically been a major contributor to morbidity and mortality. Recent reports indicate a pronounced decline in infection and disease rates. The decline has also occurred in areas with limited or no intervention. The present study assessed temporal changes in Anopheline populations in two highly malaria-endemic communities of NE Tanzania during the period 1998-2009. Between 1998 and 2001 (1st period) and between 2003 and 2009 (2nd period), mosquitoes were collected weekly in 50 households using CDC light traps. The average number of Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles funestus per trap decreased by 76.8% and 55.3%, respectively over the 1st period, and by 99.7% and 99.8% over the 2nd period. During the last year of sampling (2009), the use of 2368 traps produced a total of only 14 Anopheline mosquitoes. A longitudinal decline in the density of malaria mosquito vectors was seen during both study periods despite the absence of organized vector control.

Between 1988 and 2008, the status of 225 bird species was elevated to a higher level of risk

Birds are widespread, readily observed, feed at many levels of the food web, and are responsive to environmental change, making them good indicators of ecosystem health. Globally, over 150 species of birds have been lost since the 16th century and one in eight is currently threatened with extinction. Over the past 20 years, the status of the world’s birds has deteriorated, with more species moving closer to extinction. Of particular concern are declines in formerly common species. The last 20 years have witnessed a steady decline of bird species in terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems. Between 1988 and 2008, the status of 225 bird species was elevated to a higher level of risk.

122 Indonesian bird species included on the IUCN red list could go extinct

Conservation association Burung Indonesia reports that 122 Indonesian bird species included on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) red list could go extinct; 18 bird species in Indonesia are in critical condition, 31 species are endangered and 73 species are categorized as vulnerable. Burung Indonesia program manager Ria Saryanthi said that Indonesia had the highest number of birds that could go extinct. Indonesia has a tremendously diverse variety of bird species. According to Ria, 1,594 bird species from a total 10,000 known birds in the world are endemic to Indonesia. This ranks Indonesia fifth in terms of nations with the greatest diversity of bird species.

Het daadwerkelijke risico van neonicotinoide insecticiden wordt schromelijk onderschat

De traditionele benadering van giftigheid is het testen in model organismen van dosis (concentratie) - effect verhoudingen bij een willekeurig vastgelegde blootstellingsduur, waarvan wordt verondersteld dat daarmee de 'acute' of 'chronische' blootstelling wordt nagebootst. Deze benadering meet het aandeel van alle blootgestelde individuen waarbij effecten worden waargenomen. Deze gegevens kunnen echter niet worden gerelateerd aan de zeer uiteenlopende blootstellingssituaties van mens en dier aan de vele potentieel giftige stoffen. In de bijgevoegde publicatie van Henk Tennekes en Francisco Sánchez-Bayo wordt aangetoond dat met de huidige toxicologische risicoanalyse het daadwerkelijke risico schromelijk kan worden onderschat. Voorbeelden daarvan zijn de giftigheid van neonicotinoide insecticiden en sommige zware metalen voor arthropoden (geleedpotigen). Hier zijn volledig nieuwe benaderingen vereist. Een toenemend aantal onderzoekers gebruikt nu een variant van het traditionele test protocol, waarbij de dosis (concentratie) wordt gekoppeld aan de tijd tot een bepaald effect (TTE) wordt waargenomen. Deze TTE benadering meet de effecten bij alle individuen, en verstrekt informatie over dosis (concentratie) en de blootstellingstijden die nodig zijn voor een giftige werking op de geteste organismen. Op die manier kunnen extrapolaties en voorspellingen worden gemaakt over de giftige gevolgen van iedere combinatie van dosis (concentratie) en blootstellingstijd.

Hoe langdurige blootstelling aan imidacloprid kan leiden tot de ondergang van bijenvolken

Imidacloprid is het eerste zeer efficiënte insecticide waarvan het werkingsmechanisme berust op bijna volledige en vrijwel onomkeerbare blokkade van de postsynaptische nicotinerge acetylcholine receptoren (nAChRs) in het centrale zenuwstelsel van insecten. Imidacloprid bootst de werking van acetylcholine na, maar wordt, in tegenstelling tot acetylcholine, niet gedesactiveerd door acetylcholinesterase en activeert daardoor permanent nAChRs. De chronische blootstelling van insecten aan imidacloprid leidt dientengevolge tot cumulatieve en vrijwel onomkeerbare blokkade van nAChRs, die functies vervullen in vele cognitieve processen. Een honingsbij moet tijdens een voedselvlucht vele complexe visuele patronen leren en zich ook weten te herinneren. Deze cognitieve functies kunnen worden verstoord wanneer nAChRs, noodzakelijk voor de vorming van lange termijn geheugen en betrokken bij het vrijmaken van deze informatie, voortdurend worden geblokkeerd. Bij sub-letale doseringen van imidacloprid treedt bij de honingsbij dan ook een verandering van het foerageergedrag op. Op 29-03-2012 werd het causale verband tussen bijensterfte en neonicotinoide bestrijdingsmiddelen in twee artikelen in het tijdschrift Science onweerlegbaar bewezen.

Über 100 heimische Vogelarten gefährdet

Der Vogelschutz in Deutschland verzeichnet weitere Rückschläge. „Wenn heute fast jede achte heimische Vogelart aus Deutschland zu verschwinden droht, dann ist das auch ein Versagen der Naturschutzpolitik in Brüssel, in Berlin und draußen im Land“, stellte NABU-Vizepräsident Helmut Opitz fest. Am meisten Sorgen bereiten die Vögel der Agrarlandschaft und hier besonders solche, die das Grünland besiedeln. Als Beispiele nannte er den Großen Brachvogel Numenius arquata, den Kiebitz Vanellus vanellus, das Braunkehlchen Saxicola rubetra und den Wiesenpieper Anthus pratensis. „Die Rote Liste zeigt, dass es noch nicht gelungen ist, dringend notwendige Erfordernisse des Artenschutzes in Agrar- und Umweltprogramme zu integrieren“, so Opitz.

Die Anwendung von Pestiziden in Landwirtschaftsflächen reduzierte Rebhuhn-Lebensraum und -Nahrung

Die Arten der Agrarlandschaft erleiden in den letzten Jahrzehnten erhebliche Bestandseinbrüche. Für die Hälfte der Pflanzenarten, ein Drittel der Insektenarten und vier Fünftel der Vogelarten sind Rückgänge der Populationsgrößen belegt. Das Rebhuhn ist besonders dramatisch zurückgegangen. Für ganz Europa wird geschätzt, dass der Bestand in den letzten Jahrzehnten um über 83 % zurückgegangen ist. In der Schweiz ist das Rebhuhn bereits fast ausgestorben. Die Vergangenheit als Steppenvogel erleichterte es dem Rebhuhn seit dem Mittelalter sich in den landwirtschaftlich genutzten Bereichen, in denen Felder und Wiesen die ursprüngliche Bewaldung ersetzten, neue Lebensräume zu erobern. Die Landwirtschaft damals war eine Mischung aus Tier- und Pflanzenzucht, und auf den zahlreichen, meist kleinen Feldern wuchsen zwischen den Feldfrüchten zahlreiche Wildkräuter („Unkräuter“). Auch Insekten fanden hier in großer Zahl und vielen Arten einen idealen Lebensraum. In der ersten Hälfte des zwanzigsten Jahrhunderts war das Rebhuhn eine zahlreiche und flächendeckend vorkommende Wildtierart in Deutschland. Der folgende Rückgang der Rebhühner ist vor allem mit der Intensivierung der Landwirtschaft nach 1950 verbunden. Die damals einsetzende Anwendung von Pestiziden und Herbiziden zur notwendigen Ertragssteigerung in Landwirtschaftsflächen verhinderte das Wachsen und Überleben von Wildkräutern und Insekten in den Feldern und reduzierte somit Rebhuhn-Lebensraum und -Nahrung. Die wichtigste Ursache für den Rückgang der Rebhühner ist die erhöhte Kükensterblichkeit, die sich seit den 1930er Jahren von ca. 50 % auf ca. 70 % erhöht hat. Großräumige Untersuchungen zeigen den Zusammenhang zwischen dem Rückgang der Rebhühner auf Grund der Abnahme der Insekten (Kükennahrung) durch den Gebrauch von Pestiziden, insbesondere von Herbiziden, da die Insektendichte von der Artenzahl und Häufigkeit der in der Kultur vorhandenen Wildpflanzen abhängt. Auf den meisten Feldern sind die Küken nicht in der Lage, den Tagesbedarf an Insekten in der zur Verfügung stehenden Zeit zu finden.

Continuous exposure of bees and brood to imidacloprid may ultimately cause colony collapse

Imidacloprid is the first highly effective insecticide whose mode of action has been found to derive from almost complete and virtually irreversible blockage of postsynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in the central nervous system of insects. Imidacloprid mimics the action of acetylcholine, but unlike acetylcholine, imidacloprid is not deactivated by acetylcholinesterase and thus persistently activates nAChRs. Chronic exposure of insects to imidacloprid therefore leads to cumulative and virtually irreversible blockage of nAChRs in their central nervous system, which play roles in many cognitive processes. A honey bee during a foraging flight must learn and recall many complex visual patterns. These cognitive functions may be perturbed when nAChRs, necessary for the formation of longterm memory and involved in acquisition and retrieval processes, are persistently blocked. At sub-lethal doses imidacloprid can alter honey bee foraging and learning. Imidacloprid has been detected at levels of 5.7 μg kg-1 in pollen from French hives and foraging honey bees reduced their visits to a syrup feeder when it was contaminated with 3 μg kg-1 of imidacloprid. Foraging as well as hive worker bees and brood are likely to be continuously exposed to imidacloprid when contaminated food is collected and stored inside the hive. This may in the course of time be detrimental to the bee colony and ultimately cause colony collapse.